History of Ethics in Journalism
The vast changes in journalism in the past have not been uncontroversial; numerous ethical questions surround the field of journalism, its styles, its content and its fundamental purpose.
First, the rise of yellow journalism in the late 19th century raised novel ethical concerns about citizens’ privacy and journalistic integrity. One product of privacy concerns, stemming from the rise of mass media, was Warren and Brandeis’ landmark paper, the “Right to Privacy” published in 1890 in the Harvard Law Review. In this article, Warren and Brandeis propose privacy as a “right to be let alone” to exist independently from existing protections such as libel and slander. More recently, phone hacking scandals and high-profile paparazzi incidents have reinforced the relevance of these privacy concerns in the digital age. However, questions of journalistic integrity go beyond invasion of privacy, encapsulating other encroachments such as defamation, spreading misinformation, and biased reporting.
Second, the news industry is subject to powerful economic and social pressures; to what extent should journalists prioritize entertainment to appeal to a wider, baser, audience? According to Mullainathan and Sheifer, in their article the “Market for News,” competition and reader diversity influence incentives and affect reporting accuracy and objectivity in journalism. Whether it is acceptable for newspapers and journalists to pander to biased audience segments, as is oft argued to be the case with Fox News and MSNBC, remains a controversial topic closely entwined with the journalistic integrity debate.
Finally, the, at times, collusive or subversive relationship between the media, politicians and government raises ethical questions. For instance, in many countries newspapers are owned or stringently regulated by governments in what they can or cannot publish. Historically, even in the US, cooperation by the media was instrumental in the cover-up of the severity of FDR’s polio and disability during his tenure as President. Moreover, collusion between the media and government, substantiated or not, has long been a mecca for conspiracy theorists on a range of topics. By contrast, the media has also been criticized for overstepping its bounds in publicizing sensitive, classified or confidential information; a recent example implicates media firms responsible for publicizing documents leaked by Edward Snowden. The extent to which and means under which journalists are obligated to serve the 'public interest' are important topics especially in matters involving government, politics, truth and national security.
Journalism serves many purposes in line with the ethical dilemmas posed above. It is widely accepted that news and media are crucial to the maintenance of a well-informed populace. However, within this umbrella of informing the populace include topics such as health, science and technology, business as well as more opinionated topics such as politics; an article about revolutionary cancer treatment and an article on a media organization’s endorsement of a Presidential candidate are liable to very different questions regarding ethics. Another commonly attested function of the press is entertainment, as shown by the immense readership and following of tabloids, digests, etc. Moreover, the field of investigative journalism strikes a fine-line between property/privacy and uncovering truths and deceits relevant to the public interest; for instance, executed ethically, investigative journalism is instrumental in enforcing accountability in social and government organizations, as Brunetti and Weder’s research shows (“A Free Press Is Bad News for Corruption”). Though the independent importance and validity of every purpose can be argued on ethical, legal, and policy grounds, it is clear that journalism is, on the whole, an integral part of society and its functioning.
First, the rise of yellow journalism in the late 19th century raised novel ethical concerns about citizens’ privacy and journalistic integrity. One product of privacy concerns, stemming from the rise of mass media, was Warren and Brandeis’ landmark paper, the “Right to Privacy” published in 1890 in the Harvard Law Review. In this article, Warren and Brandeis propose privacy as a “right to be let alone” to exist independently from existing protections such as libel and slander. More recently, phone hacking scandals and high-profile paparazzi incidents have reinforced the relevance of these privacy concerns in the digital age. However, questions of journalistic integrity go beyond invasion of privacy, encapsulating other encroachments such as defamation, spreading misinformation, and biased reporting.
Second, the news industry is subject to powerful economic and social pressures; to what extent should journalists prioritize entertainment to appeal to a wider, baser, audience? According to Mullainathan and Sheifer, in their article the “Market for News,” competition and reader diversity influence incentives and affect reporting accuracy and objectivity in journalism. Whether it is acceptable for newspapers and journalists to pander to biased audience segments, as is oft argued to be the case with Fox News and MSNBC, remains a controversial topic closely entwined with the journalistic integrity debate.
Finally, the, at times, collusive or subversive relationship between the media, politicians and government raises ethical questions. For instance, in many countries newspapers are owned or stringently regulated by governments in what they can or cannot publish. Historically, even in the US, cooperation by the media was instrumental in the cover-up of the severity of FDR’s polio and disability during his tenure as President. Moreover, collusion between the media and government, substantiated or not, has long been a mecca for conspiracy theorists on a range of topics. By contrast, the media has also been criticized for overstepping its bounds in publicizing sensitive, classified or confidential information; a recent example implicates media firms responsible for publicizing documents leaked by Edward Snowden. The extent to which and means under which journalists are obligated to serve the 'public interest' are important topics especially in matters involving government, politics, truth and national security.
Journalism serves many purposes in line with the ethical dilemmas posed above. It is widely accepted that news and media are crucial to the maintenance of a well-informed populace. However, within this umbrella of informing the populace include topics such as health, science and technology, business as well as more opinionated topics such as politics; an article about revolutionary cancer treatment and an article on a media organization’s endorsement of a Presidential candidate are liable to very different questions regarding ethics. Another commonly attested function of the press is entertainment, as shown by the immense readership and following of tabloids, digests, etc. Moreover, the field of investigative journalism strikes a fine-line between property/privacy and uncovering truths and deceits relevant to the public interest; for instance, executed ethically, investigative journalism is instrumental in enforcing accountability in social and government organizations, as Brunetti and Weder’s research shows (“A Free Press Is Bad News for Corruption”). Though the independent importance and validity of every purpose can be argued on ethical, legal, and policy grounds, it is clear that journalism is, on the whole, an integral part of society and its functioning.
Foundation of Ethics in Journalism
The tools of the modern press can be used to exact both great benefit and great harm, and, thus, must be subject to meticulous ethical scrutiny reasoning. To this end, most newspapers and organizations publicly ascribe themselves and their reporters, correspondents, editors, etc. to well-documented and intentioned, codes of conduct. For example, The New York Times stresses the principles of “fairness, integrity, and truth,” defined as impartiality, accountability and factuality. Stated broadly for the entire field, the Society of Professional Journalists reiterates these values in the following code of ethics:
1. Seek truth and report it
“Ethical journalism should be accurate and fair. Journalists should be honest and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting information.” This means that journalists have an obligation to verify the accuracy of their work and their sources, and to be inclusive and objective in the subjects and voices they choose report. They must be mindful of making promises or granting anonymity and must carefully gauge the “reliability and motivations of sources.” Finally, truthfulness and clarity of content may never be sacrificed for expedience or presentation.
2. Minimize harm
“Ethical journalism treats sources, subjects, colleagues and members of the public as human beings deserving of respect.” Specifically, journalists should consider the consequences of their actions on others and also exercise good taste and restraint when appropriate, even if the targeted action falls fully within their legal rights.
3. Act independently
“The highest and primary obligation of ethical journalism is to serve the public.” In this respect, journalists should avoid conflicts of interests and resist from biasing certain interests above others. They should clearly disclose potential conflicts and be transparent in their coverage of the news.
4. Be accountable and transparent
“Ethical journalism means taking responsibility for one’s work and explaining one’s decisions to the public.” Journalists should be receptive to criticism and responsive to questioning of their work; they must expose unethical conduct and abide, themselves, by high moral standards they expect from others.
Few would argue that the aforementioned codes of conduct mean ill; in fact, such principles and ideals are largely consistent with the major schools of ethics, ranging from consequentialism, deontology, to virtue theory. Unfortunately, the translation of such rules to real world policies and actions is sometimes shrouded by intrigue, opposing viewpoints and forced compromise. Even so, these rules form an ethical framework that permeates, ubiquitously, throughout what we traditionally view as the journalistic profession and industry.
1. Seek truth and report it
“Ethical journalism should be accurate and fair. Journalists should be honest and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting information.” This means that journalists have an obligation to verify the accuracy of their work and their sources, and to be inclusive and objective in the subjects and voices they choose report. They must be mindful of making promises or granting anonymity and must carefully gauge the “reliability and motivations of sources.” Finally, truthfulness and clarity of content may never be sacrificed for expedience or presentation.
2. Minimize harm
“Ethical journalism treats sources, subjects, colleagues and members of the public as human beings deserving of respect.” Specifically, journalists should consider the consequences of their actions on others and also exercise good taste and restraint when appropriate, even if the targeted action falls fully within their legal rights.
3. Act independently
“The highest and primary obligation of ethical journalism is to serve the public.” In this respect, journalists should avoid conflicts of interests and resist from biasing certain interests above others. They should clearly disclose potential conflicts and be transparent in their coverage of the news.
4. Be accountable and transparent
“Ethical journalism means taking responsibility for one’s work and explaining one’s decisions to the public.” Journalists should be receptive to criticism and responsive to questioning of their work; they must expose unethical conduct and abide, themselves, by high moral standards they expect from others.
Few would argue that the aforementioned codes of conduct mean ill; in fact, such principles and ideals are largely consistent with the major schools of ethics, ranging from consequentialism, deontology, to virtue theory. Unfortunately, the translation of such rules to real world policies and actions is sometimes shrouded by intrigue, opposing viewpoints and forced compromise. Even so, these rules form an ethical framework that permeates, ubiquitously, throughout what we traditionally view as the journalistic profession and industry.